@Article{AdesAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCDDEJLDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDEEEEFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGHHHHHHHHHHHHHRHHHHHHHHHHHHIIIIIIJJJJJJJJJJJJKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMNNNNNNNOOOOPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPQRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRSSSSSSSSSSSSSJSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSWSSSSSSSSSSSSSSTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTAWASSWHVVVVVVWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWXYYZZZZZZZZZZAGHLMRV:2019:StCl20,
author = "Ades, M. and Adler, R. and Aldeco, L. S. and Alejandra, G. and
Alfaro, E. J. and Aliaga-Nestares, V. and Allan, R. P. and Allan,
R. and Alves, L. M. and Amador, J. A. and Andersen, J. K. and
Anderson, J. and Arndt, D. S. and Arosio, C. and Arrigo, K. and
Azorin-Molina, C. and Bardin, M. Y. and Barichivich, J. and
Barreira, S. and Baxter, S. and Beck, H. E. and Becker, A. and
Bell, G. D. and Bellouin, N. and Belmont, M. and Benedetti, A. and
Benedict, I. and Bernhard, G. H. and Berrisford, P. and Berry, D.
I. and Bettio, L. and Bhatt, U. S. and Biskaborn, B. K. and
Bissolli, P. and Bjella, K. L. and Bjerke, J. K. and Blake, E. S.
and Blenkinsop, S. and Blunden, J. and Bock, O. and Bosilovich, M.
G. and Boucher, O. and Box, J. E. and Boyer, T. and Braathen, G.
and Bringas, F. G. and Bromwich, D. H. and Brown, A. and Brown, R.
and Brown, T. J. and Buehler, S. A. and C{\'a}ceres, L. and
Calder{\'o}n, B. and Camargo, S. J. and Campbell, J. D. and
Campos Diaz, D. A. and Cappelen, J. and Carrea, L. and Carrier, S.
B. and Carter, B. R. and Castro, A. Y. and Cetinic, I. and
Chambers, D. P. and Chen, L. and Cheng, L. and Cheng, V. Y. S. and
Christiansen, H. H. and Christy, J. R. and Chung, E. -S. and
Claus, F. and Clem, K. R. and Coelho, Caio Augusto dos Santos and
Coldewey-Egbers, M. and Colwell, S. and Cooper, O. R. and Cosca,
C. and Covey, C. and Coy, L. and D{\'a}vila, C. P. and Davis, S.
M. and de Eyto, E. and de Jeu, R. A. M. and De Laat, J. and
Decharme, B. and Degasperi, C. L. and Degenstein, D. and Demircan,
M. and Derksen, C. and Dhurmea, K. R. and Di Girolamo, L. and
Diamond, H. J. and Diaz, E. and Diniz, F. A. and Dlugokencky, E.
J. and Dohan, K. and Dokulil, M. T. and Dolman, A. J. and
Domingues, C. M. and Domingues, R. and Donat, M. G. and Dorigo, W.
A. and Drozdov, D. S. and Druckenmiller, M. L. and Dunn, R. J. H.
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and Jevrejeva, S. and Jia, G. and Jim{\'e}nez, C. and Jin, X. and
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Johnson, B. and Jones, P. D. and Jumaux, G. and Kabidi, K. and
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S. W.",
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Espaciais (INPE)}",
title = "State of the climate in 2018",
journal = "Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society",
year = "2019",
volume = "100",
number = "9",
pages = "SI-S305",
note = "{cited By 1}",
abstract = "In 2018, the dominant greenhouse gases released into Earth's
atmosphere-carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide-continued
their increase. The annual global average carbon dioxide
concentration at Earth's surface was 407.4 ± 0.1 ppm, the highest
in the modern instrumental record and in ice core records dating
back 800 000 years. Combined, greenhouse gases and several
halogenated gases contribute just over 3 W m{\^a}2 to radiative
forcing and represent a nearly 43% increase since 1990. Carbon
dioxide is responsible for about 65% of this radiative forcing.
With a weak La Niña in early 2018 transitioning to a weak El Niño
by the year's end, the global surface (land and ocean) temperature
was the fourth highest on record, with only 2015 through 2017
being warmer. Several European countries reported record high
annual temperatures. There were also more high, and fewer low,
temperature extremes than in nearly all of the 68-year extremes
record. Madagascar recorded a record daily temperature of 40.5°C
in Morondava in March, while South Korea set its record high of
41.0°C in August in Hongcheon. Nawabshah, Pakistan, recorded its
highest temperature of 50.2°C, which may be a new daily world
record for April. Globally, the annual lower troposphere
temperature was third to seventh highest, depending on the dataset
analyzed. The lower stratospheric temperature was approximately
fifth lowest. The 2018 Arctic land surface temperature was 1.2°C
above the 1981-2010 average, tying for third highest in the
118-year record, following 2016 and 2017. June's Arctic snow cover
extent was almost half of what it was 35 years ago. Across
Greenland, however, regional summer temperatures were generally
below or near average. Additionally, a satellite survey of 47
glaciers in Greenland indicated a net increase in area for the
first time since records began in 1999. Increasing permafrost
temperatures were reported at most observation sites in the
Arctic, with the overall increase of 0.1°-0.2°C between 2017 and
2018 being comparable to the highest rate of warming ever observed
in the region. On 17 March, Arctic sea ice extent marked the
second smallest annual maximum in the 38-year record, larger than
only 2017. The minimum extent in 2018 was reached on 19 September
and again on 23 September, tying 2008 and 2010 for the sixth
lowest extent on record. The 23 September date tied 1997 as the
latest sea ice minimum date on record. First-year ice now
dominates the ice cover, comprising 77% of the March 2018 ice pack
compared to 55% during the 1980s. Because thinner, younger ice is
more vulnerable to melting out in summer, this shift in sea ice
age has contributed to the decreasing trend in minimum ice extent.
Regionally, Bering Sea ice extent was at record lows for almost
the entire 2017/18 ice season. For the Antarctic continent as a
whole, 2018 was warmer than average. On the highest points of the
Antarctic Plateau, the automatic weather station Relay (74°S)
broke or tied six monthly temperature records throughout the year,
with August breaking its record by nearly 8°C. However, cool
conditions in the western Bellingshausen Sea and Amundsen Sea
sector contributed to a low melt season overall for 2017/18. High
SSTs contributed to low summer sea ice extent in the Ross and
Weddell Seas in 2018, underpinning the second lowest Antarctic
summer minimum sea ice extent on record. Despite conducive
conditions for its formation, the ozone hole at its maximum extent
in September was near the 2000-18 mean, likely due to an ongoing
slow decline in stratospheric chlorine monoxide concentration.
Across the oceans, globally averaged SST decreased slightly since
the record El Niño year of 2016 but was still far above the
climatological mean. On average, SST is increasing at a rate of
0.10° ± 0.01°C decade{\^a}1 since 1950. The warming appeared
largest in the tropical Indian Ocean and smallest in the North
Pacific. The deeper ocean continues to warm year after year. For
the seventh consecutive year, global annual mean sea level became
the highest in the 26-year record, rising to 81 mm above the 1993
average. As anticipated in a warming climate, the hydrological
cycle over the ocean is accelerating: dry regions are becoming
drier and wet regions rainier. Closer to the equator, 95 named
tropical storms were observed during 2018, well above the
1981-2010 average of 82. Eleven tropical cyclones reached
Saffir-Simpson scale Category 5 intensity. North Atlantic Major
Hurricane Michael's landfall intensity of 140 kt was the fourth
strongest for any continental U.S. hurricane landfall in the
168-year record. Michael caused more than 30 fatalities and 25
billion (U.S. dollars) in damages. In the western North Pacific,
Super Typhoon Mangkhut led to 160 fatalities and 6 billion (U.S.
dollars) in damages across the Philippines, Hong Kong, Macau,
mainland China, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands. Tropical
Storm Son-Tinh was responsible for 170 fatalities in Vietnam and
Laos. Nearly all the islands of Micronesia experienced at least
moderate impacts from various tropical cyclones. Across land, many
areas around the globe received copious precipitation, notable at
different time scales. Rodrigues and R{\'e}union Island near
southern Africa each reported their third wettest year on record.
In Hawaii, 1262 mm precipitation at Waip{\"A} Gardens (Kauai) on
14-15 April set a new U.S. record for 24-h precipitation. In
Brazil, the city of Belo Horizonte received nearly 75 mm of rain
in just 20 minutes, nearly half its monthly average. Globally,
fire activity during 2018 was the lowest since the start of the
record in 1997, with a combined burned area of about 500 million
hectares. This reinforced the long-term downward trend in fire
emissions driven by changes in land use in frequently burning
savannas. However, wildfires burned 3.5 million hectares across
the United States, well above the 2000-10 average of 2.7 million
hectares. Combined, U.S. wildfire damages for the 2017 and 2018
wildfire seasons exceeded 40 billion (U.S. dollars). © 2019
American Meteorological Society. All rights reserved.",
doi = "10.1175/2019BAMSStateoftheClimate.1",
url = "http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2019BAMSStateoftheClimate.1",
issn = "0003-0007",
label = "isi 2019-12-31
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